Module 1

Introduction

This module assumes a knowledge of the terms "pronominal", "root word", "stem", and "paradigm", all of which are discussed on the the introduction page.

Pronominals

English Pronouns

English has 21 pronouns that standalone and are separate words:

Subjective Set	Objective Set	Possessive Set
I	me	my
you	you	your
he	him	his
she	her	her
it	it	its
we	us	our
they	them	their

Oneida has two kinds of pronouns: standalone and bound.

Standalone Pronouns

Standalone pronouns are words you‘ll find that stand alone in a sentence. The standalone pronouns are:

Oneida	English
í·	I / Me
isé·	You
né·	It
laulhá·	He / Him
akaulhá·	She / Her
aulhá·	It
lonulhá·	They / Them (males, mix of males and females)
onulhá·	They / Them (females)

Bound Pronouns

Bound pronouns must be attached to a word. There are roughly 80 of these, which can be broken down into four groups:

Subjective (Red)
Objective (Blue)
Possessive (Light Blue)
Interactive (Purple)

The last group, Interactive, refers to a group of pronouns that do not have an English counterpart. Each of these groups are colour-coded to help you identify pronouns within words.

Below you‘ll see a paradigm chart for each stem for each of the groups above, as well as tables that show all pronouns for each group.

From here on, we will refer to pronouns as pronominals, which is an abbreviation of "pronominal prefix". This is a linguistics term.

While you should end up learning all of the following paradigms, it is best to prioritize paradigms for C-stem and A-stem words as they are the most common.

Subjective Pronominals (Red)

Generally, subjective (red) pronominals are used when the person is in control of the action. There are exceptions to this, though.

English	C-stem	A-stem	I-stem	E-stem Λ-stem	O-stem U-stem
I	k ik ⁵ ke ⁴	k	k	k	k
You	s ts ⁶ it ⁷ hse ³⁴	hs ³	ts hs ³	hs ³	hs ³
He	la ²	l ²	lʌ ¹²	hl ²³	hl ²³
She	ye	yu ¹	ye ¹	yak	yak
It	ka	w	kʌ ¹	w	y
You and I	tni	ty	tn	tn	tn
Someone and I	yakni	yaky	yakn	yakn	yakn
You two	sni	tsy	sn	sn	sn
2 males 1 male + 1 female	hni ³	hy ³	hn ³	hn ³	hn ³
2 females	kni	ky	kn	kn	kn
You all and I	twa	tw	twʌ ¹	tw	ty
They and I	yakwa	yakw	yakwʌ ¹	yakw	yaky
All of you	swa	sw	swʌ ¹	sw	tsy
They (males) They (males + females)	lati ²	lu ¹²	lʌn ² lat ²	lʌn ²	lʌn ²
They (females)	kuti	ku ¹	kutkun	kun	kun

Objective Pronominals (Blue)

Objective (blue) pronominals are often when the person is not in control of the action, such as states of mind or illnesses. Many of these are discussed in module 5. There are exceptions to this too, though.

English	C-stem	A-stem	I-stem	E-stem Λ-stem	O-stem U-stem
I	wak wake ⁴	wak	wak	wak	wak
You	sa	s	sʌ ¹	s	s
He	lo ²	lo ¹²	lo ¹²	law ²	la ²
She	yako	yako ¹	yako ¹	yakaw	yaka
It	yo	yo ¹	yo ¹	yaw	ya
You and I	yukni	yuky	yukn	yukn	yukn
Someone and I	yukni	yuky	yukn	yukn	yukn
You two	sni	tsy	sn	sn	sn
2 males 1 male + 1 female	loti ²	lon ²	lot ²	lon ²	lon ²
2 females	yoti	yon	yot	yon	yon
You all and I	yukwa	yukw	yukwʌ ¹	yukw	yuky
They and I	yukwa	yukw	yukwʌ ¹	yukw	yuky
All of you	swa	sw	swʌ ¹	sw	tsy
They (males) They (males + females)	loti ²	lon ²	lot ²	lon ²	lon ²
They (females)	yoti	yon	yot	yon	yon

Interactive Pronominals (Purple)

Interactive (purple) pronominals do not have an English counterpart. There are many of these! On this website, almost all verbs that use interactive pronominals will be stated only with a subset of these pronominals. These are the singular cases, as seen in the tables below.

English	C-stem	A-stem	I-stem	E-stem Λ-stem	O-stem U-stem
I → you	ku	kuy	ku ¹	kuy	kuy
I → him	li ²	liy ²	l ²	liy ²	liy ²
I → her	khe	khey	khe ¹	khey	khey
I → you two	kni	ky	kn	kn	kn
I → all of you	kwa	kw	kwʌ ¹	kw	ky
You → me	sk ske ⁴	skw	sk	sk	sk
You → him	hetsh ³ hetshe ³⁴	hetsh ³	hetsh ³	hetsh ³	hetsh ³
You → her	she	shey	she ¹	shey	shey
You → someone and I	skni	sky	skn	skn	skn
You → them and I	skwa	skw	skwʌ ¹	skw	sky ³
He → me	lak lake ⁴	lakw	lak	lakw	lak
He → you	hya ³	hy ³	hyʌ ¹³	hyay ³	hyay ³
He → him	lo ²	lo ¹²	lo ¹²	law ²	la ²
He → her	shako	shako ¹	shako ¹	shakaw	shaka
He → you and I	shukni	shuky	shukn	shukn	shukn
He → someone and I	shukni	shuky	shukn	shukn	shukn
He → you two	hetsni ³	hetsy ³	hetsn ³	hetsn ³	hetsn ³
He → you all and I	shukwa	shukw	shukwʌ ¹	shukw	shuky
He → them and I	shukwa	shukw	shukwʌ ¹	shukw	shuky
He → all of you	hetswa ³	hetsw ³	hetswʌ ¹³	hetsw ³	hetsy ³
She → me	yuk yuke ⁴	yukw	yuk	yukw	yuk
She → you	yesa	yes	yesʌ ¹	yes	yesay
She → him	luwa	luw	luwʌ ¹	luw	luway
She → her	yutat yutate ⁴	yutat	yutat	yutat	yutat
She → you and I	yukhi	yukhiy	yukh	yukhiy	yukhiy
She → someone and I	yukhi	yukhiy	yukh	yukhiy	yukhiy
She → you two	yetshi	yetshiy	yetshi	yetshiy	yetshiy
She → you all and I	yukhi	yukhiy	yukh	yukhiy	yukhiy
She → them and I	yukhi	yukhiy	yukh	yukhiy	yukhiy
She → all of you	yetshi	yetshiy	yetshi	yetshiy	yetshiy
You and I → him	hethni ³	hety ³	hethn ³	hethn ³	hethn ³
You and I → her	yethi	yethiy	yeth	yethiy	yethiy
Someone and I → you	kni	ky	kn	kn	kn
Someone and I → him	shakni	shaky	shakn	shakn	shakn
Someone and I → her	yakhi	yakhiy	yakh	yakhiy	yakhiy
Someone and I → you two	kni	ky	kn	kn	kn
Someone and I → all of you	kwa	kw	kwʌ ¹	kw	ky
You two → me	skni	sky	skn	skn	skn
You two → him	hetsni ³	hetsy ³	hetsn ³	hetsn ³	hetsn ³
You two → her	yetshi	yetshiy	yetshi	yetshiy	yetshiy
You two → them and I	skwa	skw	skwʌ ¹	skw	sky
You all and I → him	hethwa ³	hethw ³	hethwʌ ¹³	hethw ³	hety ³
You all and I → her	yetshi	yetshiy	yetshi	yetshiy	yetshiy
They and I → you	kwa	kw	kwʌ ¹	kw	ky
They and I → him	shakwa	shakw	shakwʌ ¹	shakw	shaky
They and I → her	yakhi	yakhiy	yakh	yakhiy	yakhiy
They and I → you two	kwa	kw	kwʌ ¹	kw	ky
They and I → all of you	kwa	kw	kwʌ ¹	kw	ky
All of you → me	skwa	skw	skwʌ ¹	skw	sky
All of you → him	hetswa ³	hetsw ³	hetswʌ ¹³	hetsw ³	hetsy ³
All of you → her	yetshi	yetshiy	yetshi	yetshiy	yetshiy
All of you → someone and I	skwa	skw	skwʌ ¹	skw	sky ³
All of you → them and I	skwa	skw	skwʌ ¹	skw	sky ³
They (males),They (males + females) →	shakoti	shakon	shakot	shakon	shakon
They (females) →	yakoti	yakon	yakot	yakon	yakon
They → them (males),them (males + females)	luwati ²	luwʌn ²	luwat ²	luwʌn ²	luwʌn ²
They → them (females)	kuwati	kuwʌn	kuwat	kuwʌn	kuwʌn
They → it	kuwa	kuw	kuwʌ ¹	kuw	kuway
You → me	tak take ⁴	takw	tak	tak	tak
All of you → me	takwa	takw	takwʌ ¹	takw	taky
You two → me	takni	taky	takn	takn	takn

Possessive Pronominals (Light Blue)

Possessive (light blue) pronominals occur when talking about nouns. Almost all nouns use these, but they cannot be used with people, plants, animals, and most body parts.

English	C-stem	A-stem	I-stem	E-stem Λ-stem	O-stem U-stem
I	ak ake ⁴	akw	ak	akw	ak
You	sa	s	sʌ ¹	s	s
He	lao	lao ¹	lao ¹	law	la
She	ako	ako ¹	ako ¹	akaw	ak
It	ao	ao ¹	ao ¹	aw	a
You and I	ukni	uky	ukn	ukn	ukn
Someone and I	ukni	uky	ukn	ukn	ukn
You two	sni	tsy	sn	sn	sn
2 males 1 male + 1 female	laoti	laon	laonlaot	laon	laon
2 females	aoti	aon	aonaot	aon	aon
You all and I	ukwa	ukw	ukwʌ ¹	ukw	uky
They and I	ukwa	ukw	ukwʌ ¹	ukw	uky
All of you	swa	sw	swʌ ¹	sw	tsy
They (males) They (males + females)	laoti	laon	laonlaot	laon	laon
They (females)	aoti	aon	aonaot	aon	aon

Exceptions

Exception 1

The vowel with a squiggly underline replaces the leading vowel of the root word.

As an example, let‘s look at the A-stem column in the subjective pronominals table, and use the root word attokhaʔ. The translation for "she is wise" without this replacement rule would be yuattokhaʔ. yua is not a sound in Oneida so we instead change it to yu. Therefore the translation is yuttókhaʔ.

Exception 2

The letter l changes to an h when there is something attached before the pronominal. Examples:

lanú·wehse̲ʔ vs. yáh tehanú·wehse̲ʔ
lonúhte̲ʔ vs. yáh tehonúhte̲ʔ

Exception 3

The h is not written or pronounced when nothing is attached in front of the pronominal. However, when anything is attached to the front of the pronominal, the h is written and pronounced. Example: snú·wehse̲ʔ and yáh tehsnú·wehse̲ʔ.

Exception 4

The letter e only appears on root words that begin with a double consonant or a glottal stop. Examples:

keshwʌ·neʔ
keʔnekʌhtalá·keʔ
kenyalá·keʔ
wakeste·líhst
wakeʔnikuhlowanʌ̲́

Exception 5

The ik prefix is attached to most (but not all) single syllable roots. The i in ik is used only occasionally. The i disappears when anything is attached in front of the prefix. Example: íkyʌheʔ and yáh té·kyʌheʔ.

Exception 6

The prefix ts is attached to all roots beginning with y and i. The t disappears and is replaced by h when anything is attached in front of the prefix. Examples:

tsyʌtelí̲ vs. yáh tehsyʌtelí̲
tsí·tlu̲ʔ vs. yáh tehsí·tlu̲ʔ

Exception 7

The prefix it is attached to all roots beginning with hs and the i disappears when anything is attached in front of the prefix. Example: ítshaʔas and yáh tetsháʔas. Additionally, the h shifts over.

Understanding Pronominal Agents

If English is your first language, you may be confused by terms like "they and I", "you and I", etc. Oneida has about 15 potential "agents" which are:

First-person singular (I)
Second-person singular (You)
Male singular (He)
Female singular (She)
Feminine zoic (It, a living being)
First-person inclusive dualic (You and I)
First-person exclusive dualic (Someone and I)
Second-person dualic (You two)
Males, dualic (Two males / one male and one female)
Females, dualic (Two females)
First-person inclusive plural (You all and I)
First-person exclusive plural (They and I)
Second-person plural (All of you)
Males, plural (3+ males / 2+ males and 1+ females / 1 male and 2+ females)
Females, plural (3+ females)

These are often divided into three groups: singular, dualic, and plural. Many languages only have the concept of singular (1) and plural (more than 1), but Oneida and the other Haudenosaunee languages are more intricate when specifying people. The sections below describe how to use the dualic and plural agents using real-life scenarios, as they are tricky to grasp.

First-Person Inclusive Dualic

If you and your friend Bob are listening to a song, and you both like the song, you would say directly to Bob: tninú·wehse̲ʔ (you and I like it).

A diagram indicating that you and Bob like the song.

First-Person Exclusive Dualic

If you, your friend Bob, and another friend Alice are all listening to a song, but only you and Alice like it, you would say directly to Bob: yakninú·wehse̲ʔ (someone and I like it). That "someone" cannot be the person you are speaking to.

A diagram indicating that you and Alice like the song, but not Bob.

Second-Person Dualic

If you, your friend Bob, and Alice are all listening to a song, but Alice and Bob like it and you do not, you would say directly to either Alice or Bob: sninú·wehse̲ʔ (you two like it).

A diagram indicating that Alice and Bob like the song, but not yourself.

Males, dualic

If you and your friends Aaron, Bob, and George are all listening to a song, but only Aaron and George like the song, you would say directly to Bob: latinú·wehse̲ʔ (two males like it).

A diagram indicating that Aaron and George like the song, but not yourself or Bob.

Similarly, if you and your friends Alice, Bob, and George are all listening to a song, but only Alice and George like the song, you would say directly to Bob: ninú·wehse̲ʔ (one male and one female like it).

A diagram indicating that Alice and George like the song, but not yourself or Bob.

Females, dualic

If you and your friends Alice, Bob, and Christine are all listening to a song, but only Alice and Christine like the song, you would say directly to Bob: kninú·wehse̲ʔ (two females like it).

A diagram indicating that Alice and Christine like the song, but not yourself or Bob.

First-person inclusive plural

If you and your friends Alice, Bob, and George are all listening to a song, and all of you like the song, you would say directly to Bob: twanú·wehse̲ʔ (you all and I like it).

A diagram indicating that Alice, Bob, George, and yourself like the song.

You can use the same pronominal if your group only contains three people, as long as that group includes the person you are speaking to, yourself, and one other person.

A diagram indicating that Alice, Bob, and yourself like the song, but not George.

First-person exclusive plural

If you and your friends Alice, Bob, and George are all listening to a song, and everybody likes the song except Bob, you would say directly to Bob: yakwanú·wehse̲ʔ (they and I like it).

A diagram indicating that Alice, George, and yourself like the song, but not Bob.

Second-person plural

If you and your friends Alice, Bob, and George are all listening to a song, and everybody likes the song except yourself, you would say directly to Bob: swanú·wehse̲ʔ (you all like it).

A diagram indicating that Alice, Bob, and George like the song, but not yourself.

Males, plural

If you and your friends Aaron, Alice, Bob, Christine, George, and Richard are all listening to a song, and only Aaron, George, and Richard like the song, you would say directly to Bob: latinú·wehse̲ʔ (they males like it).

A diagram indicating that Aaron, George, and Richard like the song, but not yourself, Alice, Bob, or Christine.

Similarly, if only Alice, George, and Richard like the song, you would say directly to Bob latinú·wehse̲ʔ (they males and females like it).

A diagram indicating that Aaron, Alice, and Richard like the song, but not yourself, Christine, Bob, or George.

Lastly, if only Alice, Christine, and Richard like the song, you would say directly to Bob latinú·wehse̲ʔ (they males and females like it).

A diagram indicating that Alice, Christine, and Richard like the song, but not yourself, Aaron, Bob, or George.

To summarize, as long as there is one male in a group of three or more, and you and the person you are talking to are not included, you use the pronominal that corresponds to "they (males) / they (mix of males and females) like it".

Females, plural

If you and your friends Alice, Bob, Christine, Delores, George, and Richard are all listening to a song, and only Alice, Christine, and Delores like the song, you would say directly to Bob: kutinú·wehse̲ʔ (they females like it).

A diagram indicating that Alice, Christine, and Delores like the song, but not yourself, Bob, George, or Richard.

Leading Vowel Pronunciation

You may have noticed after listening to the audio in the standalone pronouns and possessive pronouns sections that when a word begins with a vowel, it is pronounced as though there is an h in front of the vowel. Take a listen to these words to get a sense of how the vowels end up sounding:

aknulhá·
etshnú·wehseʔ
íkyʌheʔ
owi·lá̲·
ukyalá·se̲ʔ
ʌyó·kalahwe̲ʔ

This is more of a "light" H sound as opposed to the breath-y H sound discussed below.

Stress and Accents

Stress is the term we use to describe the way we emphasize one part of a word when we say it aloud. An accent is the mark we place over the syllable that is being stressed / emphasized. The accent mark is always written over the vowel in the syllable being stressed. We never write accent marks over consonants. There are two kinds of stress:

Short stress

Short stress is indicated by an upstress mark ́ over the vowel being stressed. Vowels with short stress are pronounced slightly louder and with a rising tone of voice. The vowel is the same length as other vowels in the word.

Examples:

kátsheʔ
kákhwa̲ʔ
kítkit
ohʌtú
ohutsyakú
olihwiyó̲
ohwísta̲ʔ
áhta̲ʔ

Long stress

Long stress is indicated by an upstress mark ́ over the vowel followed by a middle dot · or a colon :. Vowels with a long stress are pronounced slightly louder and noticeably longer than other vowels in the same word.

Examples:

owi·lá̲·
onú·ta̲
ola·ná̲·
nahté·shuʔ
keksá·
niʔí·

Length

Length is indicated by a middle dot · or a colon :. Vowels are noticeably longer than other vowels in the same word.

Although people from the southern U.S. use long vowels in their speech, English speakers in most of the U.S. and Canada do not. They speak using short stress on basically all their words. This contrasts with Oneida which frequently uses long stress to properly say a word. This means that students will have to begin using long stress much more often. Oneida spoken with only short, stressed vowels sounds "American."

English speakers in this part of the country do use long stress, but usually for emphasis or to convey emotion. Being sarcastic they might say: "Well, excuuuuuse me."

Students should not stress or lengthen prefixes, roots, suffixes, particles, or whole words to convey emphasis or emotion because these are conveyed through word choice or word order. In English, speakers raise their inflection to change a statement into a question, as in: "He likes her." versus "He likes her?". Oneida speakers should not raise their inflection when asking questions, as in: Shakonú·wehseʔ kʌ́ né· akaulhá·

Where stress occurs

There are two rules regarding stress:

Every word that has more than one vowel / syllable has a stress (accent).
Only one vowel / syllable in a word can be stressed.

The most frequent placement for stress is on the second-to-last syllable of a word, for example niwáhsʌ. However, there are many exceptions to this!

Glottal Stops

A common feature of Oneida is the glottal stop indicated in writing by an apostrophe (‘) or the symbol ʔ. A glottal stop occurs when a speaker abruptly "cuts" the end off a vowel by stopping air and sound coming out of their throat. We use glottal stops in speaking English all the time, but we are unaware of them and do not write them.

Example: In English, "uh-oh." has a glottal stop. The glottal stop occurs after the "uh" and before the "oh." Many people also glottalize the double-t in words like kitten, so that they say "kiʔten." Examples of Oneida words with glottal stops are:

oʔwá·lu̲ʔ
oʔsluniʔkéha̲
otsiʔnowʌ̲́
kátsheʔ
otsí·tsyaʔ

Sometimes a vowel with a glottal stop is given a short or a long stress. Examples:

wakyo·té̲·
ká·khale̲ʔ
laksá·
kanutó·tse̲lʔ / kanutó·tsliʔ

The Letter H

An important feature of Oneida is the letter H, which works the same way as it does in English, with breath coming out of a speaker‘s throat but no sound. English speakers are not aware of how many times they say an H when they speak, and they don't write all the Hs they say. For example, they say an H (a breath but no sound) in the words “king,” “queen,” “top”, and “tie” but they don‘t hear the H and they don‘t write it.

In Oneida we write all the Hs that follow Ks and Ts. Example:

khenú·wehse̲ʔ
thikʌ̲́

We also write most of the Hs that occur after a vowel and before a consonant. Examples:

yehyatúkhwa̲ʔ
onikwʌ́htala̲ʔ
kanúhsaʔ

Not all of the Hs that are spoken in a word get written by all speakers, however. It seems to be a matter of personal preference.

Prepausal Endings

This is a unique feature of Oneida where most, almost all, words are spoken slightly differently when the word is at the end of a sentence, or if it is the only word in a sentence. There are three kinds of prepausal endings. The last syllable is either:

cut off, which may affect the pronunciation of the syllable in front
replaced by a different syllable, which affects its spelling
whispered

All prepausal endings are indicated with an underline on the vowel of the last syllable, as seen below. When the word is at the end of a sentence, it is said to be in its "prepausal form". Otherwise, the word is in its "medial form".

Cut-off Endings

This is the most common kind of prepausal ending. The last syllable will be cut off, which may affect the pronunciation of the preceding syllable. It may also affect where the stress (emphasis) occurs.

tewáhsʌ̲

vs.
tewáhsʌ
kanaskwiyó̲

vs.
kanaskwiyó
wakaʔsha·láyʌ̲ʔ

vs.
wakaʔsha·láyʌʔ
ʌkano·lúhake̲ʔ

vs.
ʌkano·lúhakeʔ

Replaced Syllable

This is not too common, and mostly occurs with words that end with an "L" sound. This affects the spelling of the word, too. Therefore, you will two written versions of the word, depending on where the word occurs in the sentence.

wá·telu̲ʔ

vs.
wá·tluʔ
naʔteyakwátele̲ʔ

vs.
naʔteyakwátleʔ
waʔtyutnʌtshá·selu̲ʔ

vs.
waʔtyutnʌtshá·sluʔ
waté·sele̲ʔ

vs.
waté·sleʔ
kanutó·tse̲lʔ

vs.
kanutó·tsliʔ

Whispered Syllables

These are commonly referred to as a "whispered ending". This is probably the least common kind of prepausal ending. The last syllable is still pronounced but it is whispered.

tehatilihwákhwa̲ʔ

vs.
tehatilihwákhwaʔ

Examples

Tó· nikanutó·tslake̲
Wá·telu̲ʔ
To· nikú ʌtehsla·kó̲·
Ahsʌ̲
Tó· naʔtehaohsliyá·ku̲
Wá·tluʔ naʔtehaohsliyá·ku̲
Tó· naʔteyakaohsliyá·ku né· sahsotha̲
Wá·tluʔ niwáhsʌ wá·telu̲ʔ

-yat- — be named

The root word, -yat-, means "to be named". It is a C-stem (because the first letter is a consonant) that uses interactive pronominals.

Phrase	Translation
yukyáts	They call me ...
yesa·yáts	They call you ...
luwa·yáts	They call him ...
yutatyáts	They call her ...
kuwa·yáts	They call it ...
luwati·yáts	They call them (males) ...
kuwati·yáts	They call them (females) ...

As a concrete example, the phrase Bob ni· yukyáts translates to "Bob is my name". Using the interactive pronominals table above, one can see yuk in the C-stem column corresponds to the direction "They → me". Thus, this phrase can literaly be translated as "They name me Bob". Colloquially, this is translated as "They call me Bob" or "My name is Bob".

Some root words can only take certain kinds of pronominals (e.g. purple, red, blue), while other root words can use multiple.

-anuhte- — to know

The root word, -anuht(e)-, means "to know". It is an A-stem (because the first letter is "A") that uses objective pronominals.

Phrase	Translation
wakanúhte̲ʔ	I know
sanúhte̲ʔ	You know
lonúhte̲ʔ	He knows
yakonúhte̲ʔ	She knows
yonúhte̲ʔ	It knows
yukyanúhte̲ʔ	You and I know
yukyanúhte̲ʔ	Someone and I know
tsyanúhte̲ʔ	You two know
lonanúhte̲ʔ	2 males know 1 male + 1 female know
yonanúhte̲ʔ	2 females know
yukwanúhte̲ʔ	You all and I know
yukwanúhte̲ʔ	They and I know
swanúhte̲ʔ	All of you know
lonanúhte̲ʔ	They (males) know They (males + females) know
yonanúhte̲ʔ	They (females) know

-awʌ- — belonging

The root word, -awʌ-, means "belonging". It is an A-stem noun (because the first letter is "A") that uses possessive pronominals.

Phrase	Translation
akwawʌ̲́	My belonging
sawʌ̲́	Your belonging
laowʌ̲́	His belonging
akowʌ̲́	Her belonging
aowʌ̲́	Its belonging
ukyawʌ̲́	Our (you and I) belonging
ukyawʌ̲́	Our (someone and I) belonging
tsyawʌ̲́	You two's belonging
laonawʌ̲́	Their (2 males) belonging Their (1 male + 1 female) belonging
aonawʌ̲́	Their (2 females) belonging
ukwawʌ̲́	All of ours's belonging
ukwawʌ̲́	Ours (they and I) belonging
swawʌ̲́	All of yours's belonging
laonawʌ̲́	Their (males) belonging Their (males + females) belonging
aonawʌ̲́	Their (females) belonging

It belongs to someone

The following table combines the standalone pronouns with the table above.

Phrase	Translation
í· akwawʌ̲́	It belongs to me
isé· sawʌ̲́	It belongs to you
laulhá· laowʌ̲́	It belongs to him
akaulhá· akowʌ̲́	It belongs to her
aulhá· aowʌ̲́	It belongs to it
í· ukyawʌ̲́	It belongs to you and I
isé· tsyawʌ̲́	It belongs to you two
í· ukwawʌ̲́	It belongs to you all and I
isé· swawʌ̲́	It belongs to all of you
lonulhá· laonawʌ̲́	It belongs to them (males) It belongs to them (males + females)
onulhá· aonawʌ̲́	It belongs to them (females)

Negating Verbs

To negate a simple verb, take the stated form of the verb and add yáh teʔ to the beginning. The te is attached directly to the word that is being negated. (The glottal is dropped if attached to a word starting with H.)

Phrase	Translation
yáh teʔwakanúhte̲ʔ	I don't know
yáh teʔsanúhte̲ʔ	You don't know
yáh tehonúhte̲ʔ	He doesn't know
yáh teʔyakonúhte̲ʔ	She doesn't know
yáh teʔyonúhte̲ʔ	It doesn't know
yáh teʔyukyanúhte̲ʔ	You and I don't know
yáh teʔyukyanúhte̲ʔ	Someone and I don't know
yáh teʔtsyanúhte̲ʔ	You two don't know
yáh tehonanúhte̲ʔ	2 males don't know 1 male + 1 female don't know
yáh teʔyonanúhte̲ʔ	2 females don't know
yáh teʔyukwanúhte̲ʔ	You all and I don't know
yáh teʔyukwanúhte̲ʔ	They and I don't know
yáh teʔswanúhte̲ʔ	All of you don't know
yáh tehonanúhte̲ʔ	They (males) don't know They (males + females) don't know
yáh teʔyonanúhte̲ʔ	They (females) don't know

This works for verbs that do not have a pre-pronominal prefix. Negation for verbs that have a pre-pronominal prefix is discussed in module 2.

Below is another example of negating a verb, though for some reason, ne is a required word in the phrase.

Phrase	Translation
yáh ne teʔwakawʌ̲́	It doesn't belong to me
yáh ne teʔsawʌ̲́	It doesn't belong to you
yáh ne tehowʌ̲́	It doesn't belong to him
yáh ne teʔyakowʌ̲́	It doesn't belong to her
yáh ne tehonawʌ̲́	It doesn't belong to them (males) It doesn't belong to them (males + females)

Particles

Particles are words that can only occur in one form. They cannot be conjugated in any way. Particles can be tricky, as different particles combined together may form a new particle with a distinct meaning. For example, náhteʔ means "what", ok means "just", but náhteʔ ok means "something".

Oneida	English	Examples
kwáh tsiʔ niyot	like, just like	Kunú·wehseʔ kwáh tsiʔ niyot isé· sknú·wehseʔ niʔi I like you just like you like me.
kwáh ikʌ́· tsiʔ	very much	Kwáh i·kʌ́ tsiʔ kninú·wehseʔ kaʔi·kʌ́· né· Só·s khále Alísakwe Susan and Elizabeth like this very much.
akwekú	everyone, everybody, everything	Yáh akwekú teʔsanúhte̲ʔ You don't know everything. Akwekú lanú·wehse̲ʔ He likes everything. Akwekú shukwanú·wehse̲ʔ He likes all of us.
e·só·	a lot	Esó· yukhinú·wehseʔ thikʌ́ akokhstʌ́ha̲ That old woman likes us a lot.
ʌ́·	yes
kátiʔ	so then	Oh káti niʔí· So then, what about me?
ok né·n	so then	Ok né·n niʔí· So then, what about me?
tá·thuni	or	Yáh teʔwakanúhteʔ tá·tkʌ Kwítel tá·thuni Tshyalé luwa·yáts I don't know if his name is Peter or Charlie.
kʌ́	Used to indicate a question	Tshyalé kʌ́ luwa·yáts né·n laulhá· Is his name Charlie?
kaʔi·kʌ̲́·	this	Akwekú kʌ́ latinú·wehseʔ kaʔi·kʌ́· lotikhstʌʔokúha̲ Do all of the old men like this?
náhteʔ	what	Knú·wehseʔ tsiʔ náhteʔ snú·wehse̲ʔ I like what (it is that) you like.
náhteʔ ok	something, anything	Náhteʔ ok kʌ́ yakonúhteʔ né· yeksá· Does the girl know anything?
nʌʔ né·	it is	Wílo nʌʔ né· It's William.
nók tsiʔ	but	Laknú·wehseʔ niʔí· nók tsiʔ yáh né· tehinú·wehse̲ʔ He likes me but I don't like him.
kháleʔ	and	Lokhstʌ́ha kháleʔ né·n laksá· ninú·wehse̲ʔ The old man and the boy like it.
uní	also, too, as well as, either	Yeyaʔtaséha uní yesanú·wehse̲ʔ The young woman also likes you.
oyá	other, else, another	Lanú·wehseʔ kʌ́ né· oyá· laksá· Does the other boy like it?
oh	a particle used to ask What? Why? and How? questions	Oh náhte yesa·yáts What is your name?
oh ni·yót	How?	Oh ni·yót tsiʔ yakonúhteʔ né·n Wa·li How does Mary know that?
ostú·ha̲	a little bit	Ostú·ha yakninú·wehse i· kháleʔ Kwítel Peter and I like it a little bit.
ok	just, only	Tá·wet ok linúwehse̲ʔ I only like David.
ostúhaʔ ok	just a little bit	Ostúhaʔ ok khenú·wehseʔ né· thikʌ́ latinikʌhtluʔokuha̲ I like those young men just a little bit.
úhkaʔ náhteʔ	who	Úhkaʔ náhteʔ thikʌ́ lú·kwe̲ʔ Who is that man? Sanúhteʔ kʌ́ úhkaʔ náhteʔ thikʌ̲́ Do you know who that is?
úhkaʔ ok náhteʔ	someone, somebody	Úhkaʔ ok náhteʔ luwanú·wehse̲ʔ Someone likes him.
(kwah) otokú· tsiʔ	certainly, for sure	Kwah otokú· tsiʔ khenú·wehseʔ né· Só·s I certainly like Susan.
náhteʔ oyá·	something else, anything else	Yáh náhteʔ ó·ya teyakonúhte̲ʔ She doesn't know anything else.
sʌ́haʔ	more	Sʌ́haʔ kʌ́ yenú·wehseʔ né· kaʔi·kʌ̲́ Does she like this more?
sʌ́haʔ ... tsiʔ ni·yót	more than	Sʌ́haʔ linú·wehseʔ né· Tá·wet tsiʔ ni·yót né· Tshyalé I like David more than Charlie.
shekú	still, yet, again	Shekú yáh teʔkhenú·wehseʔ né· akaulhá· I still don't like her.
shekú o·yá·	another one, yet another	Shekú oyá· yakukwé yesanú·wehse̲ʔ Yet another woman likes you.
thikʌ̲́	that, that one, that thing	Swanú·wehseʔ kʌ́ thikʌ̲́ Do you all like that?
to·káh	I dunno
to·kʌśke̲ʔ	true, it is true	To·kʌ́skeʔ kʌ́ tsiʔ yáh teʔsknúwehse̲ʔ Is it true that you don't like me?
tá·t	if	Yáh teʔwakanúhteʔ tá·t Kwítel luwa·yáts né·n laulhá· I don't know if his name is Peter.
tsiʔ	that, there, when, to, at	Sanúhteʔ kʌ́ tsiʔ yáh teʔyesanú·wehse̲ʔ Do you know that she doesn't like you? Knú·wehseʔ tsiʔ isé· sknú·wehse̲ʔ. I like it that you like me.
tsiʔ náhteʔ	what (it is)	Yáh teʔwakanúhteʔ tsiʔ náhteʔ snú·wehse̲ʔ I don't know what you like.
wáhi̲	Isn't it? Innit? Eh?	Wá·li yutátyats né· akaulhá·, wáhi̲ Her name is Mary, isn't it?
táh	no
yáh kiʔ sótsi	not that much, not so much	Yáh kiʔ sótsi tehetshnú·wehseʔ, wáhi̲ You don't like him that much, do you?
yáh úhkaʔ	no one, nobody	Yáh úhkaʔ tehuwanú·wehseʔ thikʌ́ lanikʌhtlúha̲ No one likes that young man.
yáh náhteʔ	nothing, not anything
Yáh ... té·kʌ	not (a fact), not (true)	Yáh to·kʌ́skeʔ té·kʌ That's not true. Yáh Wali té·kʌ That's not Mary.
Ta·ím	no way (slang)

People

It is important to understand that the translations for two or more people are not literal. tehniská· is not the literal translation for "2 boys" — that is tehniyáhse tehniská·. You can learn more about this in the "Counting People" article which is part of module 3.

Children

English	Oneida
Boy	laksá·
2 boys 1 boy + 1 girl	tehniksá·
3+ boys Mix of boys and girls	latiksaʔshúha̲
Girl	yeksá·
2 girls	tekniksá·
3+ girls	kutiksaʔshúha̲

Adolescents

English	Oneida
Young man	lanikʌtlúha̲
2 young men	tehninikʌtlúha̲
3+ young men	latinikʌtluʔokúha̲
Young woman	yeyaʔtaséha̲
2 young women	tekniyaʔtaséha̲
3+ young women	kutiyaʔtaseʔokúha̲

Adults

English	Oneida
Man	lu·kwé̲·
2 men 1 man + 1 woman	tehnu·kwé̲·
3 men Mix of men and women	lʌnu·kwé̲·
Woman	yaku·kwé̲·
2 women	teknu·kwé̲·
3+ women	kunu·kwé̲·

Older people

Note: These words do not mean "old people", "seniors", "elders", etc. They mean people that are older than the speaker. Thus, these words are not commonly used in this context (as nouns). Instead, they are used as verbs. You can learn more about this in the "Age" article which is part of module 2.

English	Oneida
Older man	lokstʌ́ha̲
2 older men 1 older man + 1 older woman	lotikstʌ́ha̲
3+ older men Mix of older men and older women	lotikstʌhokúha̲
Older woman	akokstʌ́ha̲
2 older women	yotikstʌ́ha̲
3+ older women	yotikstʌhokúha̲

English Names

English	Oneida
Aaron	Alʌ́t
Abraham	Á·kwilut
Albert	Tsiʔtwʌlu
Charlie	Tshyalé
David	Tá·wet
George	Tsyáts
Jerry	Tshéle
John	Sawatís
Kenny	Kénniha
Matthew	Máthyu
Nicholas	Níklas
Peter	Kwítel
Richard	Lítsyet
Thomas	Tu·wís
William	Wílo
Christine Kristin	Klistí·n
Delores	Tsiló·s
Elizabeth	Aliskwe Alísakwe
Katherine	Katlí·n
Margaret	Kwáklit Kowáklit
Martha	Máhtih
Mary	Wá·li
Nellie Amelia	Ní·ki
Rachel	Lá·kel
Sara	Sá·lʌ̲
Susan	Só·s

Dialogue

Here is some dialogue using what was covered on this page. Some parts of this dialogue are a bit contrived but it should help you with understanding what has been covered.

Example 1

Úhkaʔ náhteʔ niʔí·
Kwítel niʔisé̲·
Úhkaʔ náhteʔ niʔisé̲·
Wá·li niʔí·
Úhkaʔ náhteʔ neʔn laulhá·
Tá·wet neʔn laulhá·
Úhkaʔ náhteʔ neʔn akaulhá·
Klistí·n neʔn akaulhá·
Úhkaʔ náhteʔ nʌʔ né·
Kwítel nʌʔ né·

Example 2

Tshyalé kʌ́ niʔí·
Λ́·, Tshyalé niʔisé̲·
Wá·li kʌ́ niʔisé̲·
Λ́·, Wá·li niʔí·
Tá·wet kʌ́ neʔn laulhá·
Λ́·, Tá·wet neʔn laulhá·
Klistí·n kʌ́ neʔn akaulhá·
Λ́·, Klistí·n neʔn akaulhá·

Example 3

Í· kʌ́ neʔn Tshyalé
Λ́·, isé· né· Tshyalé
Isé· kʌ́ neʔn Wá·li
Λ́·, í· né· Wá·li
Laulhá· kʌ́ neʔn Tá·wet
Λ́·, laulhá· né· Tá·wet
Akaulhá· kʌ́ neʔn Ní·ki
Λ́·, akaulhá· né· Ní·ki

Example 4

Wá·li kʌ́ niʔí·
Táh, yáh Wá·li té·kʌ nisé· Só·s niʔisé̲·
Tshyalé kʌ́ niʔisé̲·
Táh, yáh Tshyalé té·kʌ niʔí· Wá·li niʔí·
Wílo kʌ́ neʔn laulhá·
Táh, yáh Wílo té·kʌ neʔn laulhá· Tá·wet neʔn laulhá·
Lá·kel kʌ́ neʔn akaulhá·
Táh, yáh Lá·kel té·kʌ neʔn akaulhá· Só·s neʔn akaulhá·

Example 5

Í· kʌ́ neʔn Wá·li
Táh, yáh Wá·li té·kʌ niʔisé̲· Só·s ni·sé·
Isé· kʌ́ neʔn Tu·wís
Táh, yáh Tu·wís té·kʌ niʔí· Wílo niʔí·
Laulhá· kʌ́ neʔn Tshyalé
Táh, yáh Tshyalé té·kʌ neʔn laulhá· Ta·wet neʔn laulhá·
Akaulhá· kʌ́ neʔn Ní·ki
Táh, yáh Ní·ki té·kʌ neʔn akaulhá· Só·s neʔn akaulhá·

Example 6

Sknú·wehseʔ kʌ́ niʔí·
Λ́·, kunú·wehseʔ niʔisé̲· Kunú·wehseʔ niʔisé· kwáh ne·n tsiʔ niyot sknú·wehseʔ niʔí·
Etsnú·wehseʔ kʌ́ neʔn laulhá·
Λ́·, linú·wehseʔ né· laulhá·
Etsnú·wehseʔ kʌ́ neʔn Wílo
Λ́·, linú·wehseʔ né· Wílo
Shenú·wehseʔ kʌ́ neʔn akaulhá·
Λ́·, khenú·wehseʔ né· akaulhá·
Shenú·wehseʔ kʌ́ neʔn Kowaklít
Λ́·, khenú·wehseʔ né· Kowaklít
Shenú·wehseʔ kʌ́ neʔn lonulhá·
Λ́·, khenú·wehseʔ né· lonulhá·
Shenú·wehseʔ kʌ́ neʔn Beatles
Λ́·, khenú·wehseʔ né· Beatles

Example 7

I·sé· kʌ́ sknú·wehse̲ʔ
Λ́·, í· kunú·wehse̲ʔ
Laulhá· kʌ́ etsnú·wehse̲ʔ
Λ́·, laulhá· linú·wehse̲ʔ
Kwítel kʌ́ etsnú·wehse̲ʔ
Λ́·, Kwítel linú·wehse̲ʔ
Akaulhá· kʌ́ shenú·wehse̲ʔ
Λ́·, akaulhá· khenú·wehse̲ʔ
Kowaklit kʌ́ shenú·wehse̲ʔ
Λ́·, Kowaklít khenú·wehse̲ʔ
Lonulhá· kʌ́ shenú·wehse̲ʔ
Λ́·, lonulhá· khenú·wehse̲ʔ
Rolling Stones kʌ́ shenú·wehse̲ʔ
Λ́·, Rolling Stones khenú·wehse̲ʔ

Example 8

Úhkaʔ náhteʔ khenú·wehseʔ
Í· sknú·wehse̲ʔ Kwítel etsnú·wehse̲ʔ Klistí·n shenú·wehse̲ʔ Beatles shenú·wehse̲ʔ
Úhkaʔ náhteʔ shenú·wehse̲ʔ
Isé· kunú·wehse̲ʔ Kwítel linú·wehse̲ʔ Klistí·n khenú·wehse̲ʔ Beatles khenú·wehse̲ʔ Akwekú khenú·wehse̲ʔ Háti úhkaʔ ok náhteʔ niʔisé· shenú·wehseʔ, í· khenú·wehse̲ʔ
Úhkaʔ oyá· shenú·wehse̲ʔ
Rolling Stones ú·niʔ khenú·wehse̲ʔ
Úhkaʔ shakonú·wehseʔ né· Kwítel
Í· laknú·wehseʔ né· Kwítel I·sé· yanú·wehseʔ né· Kwítel
Úhkaʔ oyá· shakonú·wehseʔ neʔn Kwítel
Rolling Stones oniʔ shakonú·wehseʔ neʔn Kwítel
Úhkaʔ náhteʔ yutatnú·wehseʔ neʔn Só·s
Í· yuknú·wehseʔ neʔn Só·s I·sé· yesanú·wehseʔ né· Só·s

Example 9

Náhte snú·wehse̲ʔ
Kaʔikʌ́ knú·wehse̲ʔ Thikʌ́· knú·wehse̲ʔ Akwekú knú·wehse̲ʔ Háti náhte ne·n isé· snú·wehseʔ, í· ú·ni knú·wehse̲ʔ

Example 10

Úhkaʔ náhteʔ sʌ́haʔ shenú·wehseʔ Beatles tá·thuniʔ Rolling Stones
Beatles sʌ́haʔ khenú·wehseʔ tsiʔ ni·yót né· Rolling Stones
Úhkaʔ náhteʔ sʌ́haʔ shenú·wehseʔ tsiʔ ni·yót né·n Rolling Stones
Beatles sʌ́haʔ khenú·wehseʔ tsiʔ ni·yót né· Rolling Stones
Úhkaʔ náhteʔ sʌ́haʔ shenú·wehseʔ tsiʔ ni·yót né· Beatles
Yáh úhkaʔ náhteʔ sʌ́haʔ teʔkhenú·wehseʔ tsiʔ ni·yót né· Beatles
Sʌ́haʔ kʌ́ shenú·wehseʔ neʔn Beach Boys tsiʔ ni·yót neʔn Beatles
Táh. Yáh sʌ́haʔ tekhenú·wehseʔ né· Beach Boys tsiʔ ni·yót né· Beatles
Sʌ́haʔ kʌ́ etsnú·wehseʔ neʔn Nelson Mandela tsiʔ ni·yót neʔn Stephen Harper
Λ́·, kwáh ikʌ́ tsiʔ sʌ́haʔ linú·wehseʔ Nelson Mandela tsiʔ ni·yót neʔn Stephen Harper
Úhka ó·ya sʌ́haʔ shenú·wehseʔ tsiʔ ni·yót né· Stephen Harper
Tom Porter uní sʌ́haʔ linú·wehseʔ tsiʔ ni·yót né·n Stephen Harper
Lonúhteʔ kʌ́ neʔn Tshyalé oh náhte luwatí·yats neʔn Beatles
Λ́·, lonúhteʔ neʔn Tshyalé oh náhte luwati·yáts neʔn Beatles
Lonanúhteʔ kʌ́ né· thikʌ́ latiksaʔshúha oh náhte kuwatí·yats né· thikʌ́ otikhstʌʔokúha̲
Táh. Yáh tehonanúhteʔ né· thikʌ́ latiksaʔshúha oh náhte kuwati·yáts thikʌ́ otikhstʌʔokúha̲
Laulhá· kʌ́ lonúhteʔ náhte yesá·yats
Táh. Yáh tehonúhteʔ náhte ní· yúkyats
Klistí·n kʌ́ yutátyats né· thikʌ́ yakú·kwe̲
Λ́·, Klistí·n yutátyats né· thikʌ́ yakú·kwe̲ʔ
Onulhá· kʌ́ yonanúhteʔ náhte luwati·yáts neʔn Rolling Stones
Λ́·, yonanúhteʔ náhte luwati·yáts neʔn Rolling Stones. Mick, Keith, Charlie kháleʔ Ronnie luwati·yáts

Example 11

Sanúhteʔ kʌ́ náhte ní· yúkyats
Lá·kel kʌ́ yesa·yáts
Táh. Yáh Lá·kel teyúkyats Thikʌ́ akokstʌ́·haʔ neʔn Lá·kel yutátyats
Kowáklit kʌ́ yesa·yáts
Táh. Yáh uni Kowáklit teyúkyats Thikʌ́ yeksá· neʔn Kowáklit yutátyats
Tá·t yáh Lá·kel tathu·ní· yáh Kowáklit teyesa·yáts nahte káti yesa·yáts
Aliskwet ní· yúkyats
Onʌ wakanúhteʔ náhte yesa·yáts

Translation Exercises

1	Né· lokstʌ́ha lanú·wehseʔ uní né· kháleʔ akokstʌ́ha yenú·wehse̲ʔ
2	Yáh kʌ́ tesanúhteʔ oh náhte yutátyats né· thikʌ́ yeksá·
3	Kutikwekú kutiksaʔshúha luwanú·wehseʔ né· laulhá·
4	Kwítel kʌ́ luwa·yáts thikʌ́ laksá·
5	Sʌ́haʔ yakninú·wehseʔ ne thí·kʌ̲
6	Yáh tehonúhteʔ tsiʔ náhteʔ luwati·yáts thikʌ́ latiksaʔshúha̲ʔ
7	Yáh ki só·tsiʔ tehinú·wehseʔ Wílo
8	Akwekú shakonú·wehseʔ ne thikʌ́ lokstʌ́ha, nók tsiʔ yáh neʔn Wá·li
9	Sanúhteʔ kʌ́ úhkaʔ náhteʔ yenú·wehseʔ kaʔí·kʌ̲
10	Sʌ́haʔ snú·wehseʔ kaʔi·kʌ́· tsiʔ ni·yóht thikʌ́, wáhi̲
11	Yáh kʌ́ tehninú·wehse̲ʔ
12	Wakanúhteʔ tsiʔ shukwanú·wehseʔ thikʌ́ lokstʌ́ha̲
13	Kunú·wehseʔ niʔisé·, kwah né·n tsiʔ niyot niʔisé· sknú·wehse̲ʔ
14	Tokʌ́skeʔ kʌ́ tsiʔ lonúhteʔ oh náhteʔ yúkyats
15	Wé·ne tsiʔ yáh tehinú·wehseʔ thikʌ́ lú·kwe̲
16	Do those women know anything?
17	Who else doesn't like this?
18	I don't like the girl that you like.
19	Does that old woman like us?
20	That woman's not Mary, she's Elizabeth.
21	Who do you like more, George Jones or Justin Bieber?
22	Who knows the old woman named Elizabeth?
23	This young man doesn't know your name.
24	I only like Mary a little bit.
25	I like David, but I still don't like Charlie.
26	How does Mary know that?
27	I know the names of those old men.
28	I know that you like him, but do you know if he likes you?
29	Who else knows the names of the young men?
30	That old man really likes this, but I know that he likes that more.

Module 1

Introduction

Pronominals

English Pronouns

Standalone Pronouns

Bound Pronouns

Subjective Pronominals (Red)

C-stem

A-stem

E-stem

I-stem

O-stem

U-stem

Λ-stem

Objective Pronominals (Blue)

C-stem

A-stem

E-stem

I-stem

O-stem

U-stem

Λ-stem

Interactive Pronominals (Purple)

C-stem

A-stem

E-stem

I-stem

O-stem

U-stem

Λ-stem

Possessive Pronominals (Light Blue)

C-stem

A-stem

E-stem

I-stem

O-stem

U-stem

Λ-stem

Exceptions

Exception 1

Exception 2

Exception 3

Exception 4

Exception 5

Exception 6

Exception 7

Understanding Pronominal Agents

First-Person Inclusive Dualic

First-Person Exclusive Dualic

Second-Person Dualic

Males, dualic

Females, dualic

First-person inclusive plural

First-person exclusive plural

Second-person plural

Males, plural

Females, plural

Leading Vowel Pronunciation

Stress and Accents

Short stress

Long stress

Length

Where stress occurs

Glottal Stops

The Letter H

Prepausal Endings

Cut-off Endings

Replaced Syllable

Whispered Syllables

Examples

-yat- — be named

-anuhte- — to know

-awʌ- — belonging

It belongs to someone

Negating Verbs

Particles

People

Children

Adolescents

Adults